Political Science 5

American Pluralism and the Role of Groups

Lesson objectives: Discuss the reality of pluralism in the U.S. and its relevance to the politicalphilosophers studied in class.

1. Introduction

In our online class we will explore the recommendations of various philosophers regarding howto best organize governing for the betterment of the individual and society in general. We havealready learned about Plato’s thoughts on these issues. We have also critiqued Plato’s theoriesand discovered that many of his ideas would simply not work in modern society. As otherpolitical thinkers are examined during the course of the semester, we will frequently compareand contrast their concepts to the U.S. political system and culture. In order to conduct thiscritical analysis, it is valuable to refresh our knowledge about how politics is practiced in ourcountry. This lesson will provide this review. The summary will not rehash what was covered inPolitical Science 1 (The Government of the United States) regarding the different branches ofgovernment and the organization of our federalist system. Instead, this lesson summarizes therelationship between the government and the governed… how real political power is exercisedinfluencing the institutions of our government.

2. American pluralism

The most widely accepted explanation of how politics works in the United States is known aspluralism. Pluralism asserts that various groups and coalitions constantly vie for governmentfavor and the ability to exercise political power, but none enjoys long-term dominance.

The father of American pluralism is James Madison who cited politics as “ambition counteringambition.” Madison’s language may be a bit antiquated and more modern phraseology mightrestate his words as “interest group clashing with interest group.” The description listed abovealso echoes Madison’s observation in more contemporary words.

Pluralists believe it is natural that different interests, goals, values, ideas, etc. will be present inindividuals and groups. It is natural for different factions to exist, for interests to conflict, forvarying viewpoints to be expressed. Since this is natural and inevitable, clashing ideas shouldnot be suppressed by the state. Instead, interests should be allowed to fight it out, with thestate supervising the struggle and registering in its laws the temporary outcome of the conflict.Society, in other words, consists of competition and the rightful role of the state is to serve as aneutral mediator in such conflicts.

Pluralists promote the idea that no one group is intrinsically superior to another. Therefore,there is no absolute moral standard against which competing claims can be measured.Correspondingly, no group should be predetermined to always win. The competition overpolitical ideas should be fair and overseen in an unbiased manner by the state. One analogymight be found in legitimate sports: competitors clash but are bound by rules designed toensure impartiality and a “level playing field,” all enforced by referees devoted to fairness.

Organizations that seek to achieve their goals by influencing government decision making arecalled interest groups. Interest groups are also called special interests, pressure groups,organized interests, political groups, lobbies, and public interest groups. Interest groups differfrom political parties in that interest groups do not seek direct control of the government, asparties aim to achieve through elections. Interest groups promote their goals by attempting toinfluence government rather than nominating candidates and seeking responsibility for themanagement of government. Interest groups want to influence policy making on issues.Interest groups are more numerous and more important in the United States than anywhereelse in the world.

The nineteenth century French historian Alexis de Tocqueville traveled extensively in Americaand authored the influential book Democracy in America. He labeled our country as a “nationof joiners.” Many believe his observation is true today. Estimates indicate that about 80% of allAmericans belong to at least one voluntary group or association. Although many groups are notinterest groups, de Tocqueville’s perception remains relevant. However, some critics disagree.Political scientist Robert Putnam, for example, has argued that fewer Americans are joininggroups, a phenomenon he labeled “bowling alone.” Others have faulted Putnam concludingthat America is witnessing an explosion of voluntary groups, activities, and charities that aretransforming the United States. These observers note that bowling leagues and olderorganizations, such as the Elks Club and the League of Women Voters, whose membership wastracked by Putnam, are attracting few new members, but contemporary volunteer groups,soccer associations, health clubs, environmental groups, and so on are flourishing. People arenot avoiding associating with groups; they are simply joining different associations, online socialnetworks, and internet-based organizations which share their personal and public interests.

3. Types of interest groups

When we think of interest groups, the typical images that come to mind are of wealthy lobbyists“schmoozing” with easily corrupted politicians. This is probably partially due to 19th centurymuckraking political cartoonists who liked to depict pot bellied men in top hats and stripedpants to represent big business invariably in league against the public welfare. Today, somepeople still tend to view interest groups from this perspective: evil, business-dominatedorganizations plotting against the public. This stereotyped image is rarely the case, ascontemporary groups include many “public interest” associations championing the consumer,environment, working class, and common citizen. In fact, interest groups do not require theleadership of the rich and well-connected to be effective. Even the least powerful members ofsociety, through collective action, can influence policy making. Although moneyed interests

may sometimes dominate political parties, interest groups play a crucial role in leveling theplaying field by providing the opportunity for access for organized, average people.

The types of interest groups are vast but can be divided into three categories based on the typeof concerns that drive their efforts to influence government policy making: economic groups,citizen groups, and single-issue groups.

Economic groups. This type of interest group seeks public policies that providemonetary benefits to its members. Corporations, trade associations, labor unions, andprofessional organizations are economic interest groups. For example, the MotionPicture Association of America (MPAA) represents the seven major U.S. manufacturersand distributors of movie and television programs. The MPAA lobbies policymakers toenact anti piracy laws, which aim to prevent the illegal copying of movies. This advocacybenefits the group’s members and their employees because anti-piracy laws help ensurethat any copies of movies sold are legal and thus profitable for MPAA members. TheAmerican Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), foranother example, is a federation of fifty-five labor unions with more than 10 millionmembers. The AFL-CIO lobbies for laws that make it easier to form labor unions andsupports government regulations that benefit workers. The National Beer WholesalersAssociation (NBWA) is a trade association composed of a nationwide group of localbusinesses that buy beer from brewers and resell it to stores and restaurants. TheNBWA’s principle lobbying goal is to ensure that laws remain in place requiringmiddlemen between beer producers and the stores, bars, and restaurants that sell beerto consumers. Another example of an economic interest group is the American MedicalAssociation, one of the top spenders on lobbying for government policies that financiallybenefit doctors and other medical professionals.

Citizen groups. Also known as public interest groups, this category captures a widerange of organizations, from those with mass membership (such as the Sierra Club) tothose that have few members but claim to speak for large segments of the population.One such group is Public Citizen which was formed by activist Ralph Nader, who initiallystarted out lobbying (successfully!) for changes in automotive design that would makecars safer. Public Citizen now conducts research and pressures Congress, the executivebranch, and the courts for openness in government and on a wide range ofenvironmental, health, consumer, and energy issues. Another example is the FamilyResearch Council, which describes itself as “promoting the Judeo-Christian worldview.”This group lobbies for a wide range of policies, including legislation that definesmarriage as between a man and a woman.

Single-issue groups. These interest groups target their efforts on a narrowly focusedgoal, seeking change on a single topic, government program, or piece of legislation. Oneexample is the National Right to Life Committee, which lobbies for restrictions onabortion rights. Closer to home, a former student surprised one of my on-campusclassrooms by bringing a ferret to a session. She was a member of Ferrets Anonymous, asingle-issue group promoting the legalization of the domestic ferret in California.

4. How interest groups operate

Interest groups operate in a variety of ways to influence public policy making. These strategiesand tactics include:

Mass propaganda. Virtually all interest groups now try to influence public opinion aboutissues. The goal is not to necessarily motivate citizens to do anything, but to influencepublic opinion in the hope that elected officials will respond by enacting or opposingnew laws or regulations in order to keep constituents happy. Most groups maintain aweb page that presents their message. Some associations may also design a mediaeffort to sway public opinion on an issue or to just produce positive community feelingsabout the group. For example, the National Rifle Association (NRA) is a very active, butcontroversial, group that focuses on protecting gun ownership. They often run “I am theNRA” ads on television and in print media to improve their image. These ads do not callfor any action on the part of the viewer, but merely feature common, next-door-typecitizens (or sometimes celebrities with positive reputations) projecting an image ofresponsibility. This tactic is labeled as “climate control,” the practice of using publicoutreach to build favorable public opinion of the organization or company. The logic ofclimate control is simple: if a corporation or organization has the goodwill of the publicon its side, enacting its legislative agenda will be easier.

Lobbying. Most interest groups place lobbying at the top of their agendas. Lobbyingactivities seek to persuade political leaders to support the group’s position. There aremultiple ways for an organization to lobby policymakers, including testifying at hearingsand contacting legislators. A critical asset for any interest group is to establish access toelected officials. This is simple as making an appointment to visit with a legislator andthe aides that assist the official. Providing information that decision makers might nothave the time, resources, or interest to gather on their own is another avenue forlobbying. Interest groups also regularly try to inspire their members to engage ingrassroots lobbying, hoping that legislators will respond to ordinary voters serving asadvocates.

Lobbying elected officials can be costly and well-heeled groups have a financialadvantage in hiring lobbyists to represent their interests. Follow the Center forResponsive Politics’ link below to see which organizations spent the most on lobbyingduring the last 15 years.

Lobbying: Top Spenders

Campaign support. Many interest groups become involved in the electoral process byrecruiting or endorsing candidates. Some provide financial aid or other forms of supportfor favored office seekers. EMILY’S List was founded to support pro-choice Democraticwomen candidates and in 2012 contributed over $8 million in direct contributions andalso mobilized volunteers, provided campaign consultants and paid for some directmedia. Interest groups are engaged in other election activities, such as launchingmassive get-out-the-vote (GOTV) efforts, and rating candidates based on their votingrecords or policy positions.

Political action committees (PACs) are the financial arms of interest groups used tocollect and distribute money to candidates for elective office. Follow the

OpenSecrets.org link below to view the top 20 PAC contributors to candidates duringvarious years and election cycles. Who were the top PAC contributors during the2015-16 election cycle? Change the date range listed at the top of the page to reveal thetop PACs in 2019-2020

Top PACs

Rating candidates (sometimes by issuing “grading cards”) based on their support forinterest group policy positions is standard-operating-procedure! Click on the link belowto scroll through a compilation of interest group ratings for Congressman Brad Sherman,who represents much of the west San Fernando Valley, including Pierce College. Thelisting is provided by public interest group Project Vote Smart. You can use their site toinput names of other elected officials and view their ratings by interest groups.

Project Vote Smart list of interest group ratings

Court litigation. The courts have proved a useful target for interest groups. By bringingtheir causes before the courts, groups can shape policy. Generally, interest groupslobbying courts can take two forms: direct sponsorship or the filing of amicus curiaebriefs. Sponsorship involves providing resources (financial, human, and informational) toshepherd a case through the judicial system. When a case a group is interested in butnot actually sponsoring comes before a court, the organization often will file an amicusbrief to inform the justices of the group’s policy preference, generally offered in theguise of legal arguments. One famous example of interest group litigation was the legalbattle waged by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) during the 1950’s to desegregate public facilities in southern states. TheNAACP focused their efforts on legal actions challenging the constitutionality of lawsthat allowed separate schools for whites and blacks. The Supreme Court’s Brown v.Board of Education decision declaring segregated schools unconstitutional was thesuccessful result of the NAACP’s litigation. Today, the American Civil Liberties Union(ACLU) utilizes court litigation as their main operational strategy in pursuing their goal ofprotecting individual freedoms and rights.

Peaceful protest. An occasional and highly visible tactic used by some groups is protestactivity. A long American tradition, protest traces its roots to the Revolutionary War.The Boston Tea Party, for example, involved breaking laws, although no one was hurtphysically. Peaceful protest marches, sit-ins, and the like can be effective tools forgalvanizing public opinion and focusing media attention on an issue important to agroup. However, forceful measures that turn violent are usually unsuccessful, casting anegative light on a group.

5. Roles

Interest groups perform three important roles in American policy making:

Supplemental representation. Interest groups provide representation supplementingthat provided by elected officials. Busy legislators are unable to bring attention or focusto the incredible multiplicity of diverse issues clamoring for their attention. Priority isplaced on matters important to a representative’s own policy agenda, constituents, orpolitical party. Concerns significant to an individual may not be on the proverbial “radarscreen” of an elected official. However, an organization reflecting the shared interests ofindividuals can provide representation for the group members. By utilizing the strategiesand tactics listed in this lesson, interest groups articulate their members’ policypreferences to government officials.

Watchdog. Interest groups perform a “watchdog function” by sounding an alarm whennew governmental policies may injure the interests of their members.

Ideas. Interest groups can generate new ideas that government may adopt as programsor policies.

6. Three perspectives

Interest groups are one of the most visible manifestations of the idea that politics is conflictual.Given the many disagreements in society over what government should do, it makes sense thatgroups would try to influence policy, laws, and regulations. Groups compete when trying toshape government decision making, both by implementing their own views and preventingopponents from accomplishing their goals. For example, as stated above, the NRA fights tomaintain and extend Americans’ ability to own and carry firearms, while other groups, such asHandgun Control, work to impose restrictions on gun ownership. To many people, interestgroups exemplify what is wrong with American politics. Citizens who are on the losing side ofimportant policy debates often attribute their defeat to actions taken by opposing interestgroups. If you support restrictions on the ownership of assault weapons, for example, you areprobably not happy about the NRA’s success at defeating attempts to ban the sale of suchweapons.

Reviewing the three viewpoints described below about interest group conflict over governmentpolicy can provide a broader perspective to understanding this ongoing serial drama ofAmerican politics.

James Madison. As explained above, the most widely accepted explanation of howpolitics works in the United States is known as pluralism. The father of Americanpluralism was James Madison who cited politics as “ambition countering ambition.”Madison believed that different interests would develop because they are inherent inthe nature of man. He assigned government the task of regulating the competinginterests of these groups, stating that “ambition must be made to counteract ambition.”

Contemporary pluralists reflect Madisonian observations that it is natural for differentinterests, goals, values, ideas, etc. to be present in individuals and groups. It is naturalfor different factions to exist, for interests to conflict, for varying viewpoints to beexpressed. Since this is natural and inevitable, clashing ideas should not be suppressed

by the state. Instead, interests should be allowed to peacefully fight it out, with thestate supervising the competition and registering in its laws the temporary outcome ofthe conflict. Society, in other words, consists of competition and conflict and the rightfulrole of the state is to serve as a neutral mediator in such struggles. Pluralists promotethe idea that no single group is intrinsically superior to another. Therefore, there is noabsolute moral standard against which competing claims can be measured.Correspondingly, no group should be predetermined to always win. The competitionover political ideas should be fair and overseen in an unbiased manner by the state.

Interest groups are viewed by pluralists as essential players in democracy because theyensure that individual concerns are represented in the political arena. Pluralists arguethat individuals’ liberties can be protected only through a proliferation of groupsrepresenting diverse competing interests, so that no one group dominates. In addition,pluralists believe that interest groups provide a structure for political participation andhelp ensure that individuals follow the rules for participating in a civil society. Followingthe rules means using accepted methods for advocacy, rather than extreme tactics suchas violence.

C. Wright Mills. A view of interest groups contrary to the pluralistic perspective waspresented by Charles Wright Mills, a very influential American sociologist who taught atColumbia University. In his book, The Power Elite, Mills presented the opinion thatpluralistic group theory does not explain who really governs… that elite theory is morevalid. According to this perspective a ruling class of wealthy, educated individualswields most of the power in government. The possessors of power, wealth, andcelebrity (i.e. “The Establishment”) govern. Elite theorists claim that top universities,corporations, the military, media outlets, and the wealthy hold a disproportionateportion of power in the United States. They also emphasize that elites commonly usethat power to protect their own economic interests, frequently by ensuring thecontinuation of the status quo. And, if pluralism exists, it really consists of competinggroups of elites. Elite theorists cite that there is mobility into the elite structure inAmerica. Talented and industrious individuals from non-elite backgrounds can attainelite status in a democracy (unlike the situation in aristocracies), often througheducation. This mobility, elite theorists say, give the political system an even greaterfaçade of accessibility.

David Truman. One of the most significant studies of American pluralism wascompleted by political scientist David Truman. His book, The Governmental Process:Political Interests and Public Opinion, expanded understanding of interest groupbehavior in the United States. Truman observed that man is by nature a social animal,interdependent on others. He concurred with the view that individuals adopt groupvalues through socialization and acculturation. He shared the perspective of sociologistsand psychologists that group experiences and affiliations of an individual are the primarymeans by which a person knows, interprets, and reacts to society. Truman’s researchillustrated that there are two significant elements of political interest groups:

1. Individuals characteristically have multiple and overlapping memberships inseveral organized interest groups. This is important as a restraint on any onegroup. For example, the same person who favors new school construction as amember of the PTA may oppose higher taxes to construct the improvements as amember of a local neighborhood association. Each group is comprised of

individuals who reflect the sometimes-opposing values of multiple groups. Thisrestrains any one group from being too extreme in its policy goals. Truman alsopointed out that cleavages within a group may likewise impose restraints. Inother words, groups are comprised of individuals with differences of opinion.These divisions act as a limitation on interest group behavior.

2. Unorganized, potential interest groups act as a moderating influence onestablished interest groups. Truman found that the potential of previouslynonexistent groups to organize serves as a moderator on other groups. Thispotential helps keep group activities and methods within broad limits, asestablished groups may exercise caution that extreme advocacy may inspireindividuals to form opposition organizations. For example, a land developer maydecide to reduce the maximum density of a project even before it is presentedfor governmental review, knowing that such a large proposal would generateopposition from established slow-growth organizations as well as likely motivateneighbors to form new opposition groups. Truman also added that widely heldbeliefs about “the rules of the game” (e.g. egalitarianism, democraticparticipation, etc.) constrict group activities from violating these values. Usingthe same example, the land developer would be best advised to encouragerather than suppress public participation in hearings designed to receivecommunity input regarding the proposed development, as our democraticsystem places a high value on the public’s right to be informed and to voiceconcerns regarding government decisions.

7. Criticisms of the pluralist viewpoint

The most widely accepted explanation of American policy making revolves around interestgroup dynamics as viewed from the pluralistic perspective. However, the pluralist viewpointdoes have detractors.

As stated above, elite theorists claim that interpreting the U.S. political scene through pluralisticglasses is unrealistic. Elite theorists point out that those who are better educated and better offfinancially are more active in interest group politics. The wealthy and well-educated are morelikely to be active in these interest groups. Historically, middle or upper class citizens with ahigh degree of political motivation are disproportionately members of political interest groups,compared to those in lower economic classes. Disadvantaged sectors of the population, such asthe poor, slum dwellers, migrant workers, and many ethnic minorities have traditionally hadneither the money or knowledge to organize. Elite theorists point out that business groups arethe most influential and tend to be more conservative. This view that the wealthy play a largerole in determining government policies and thus benefit from this influence has been labeledas “biased pluralism.” Many critics of biased pluralism believe pressure for progressive changemust come from outside the structure of such established interest groups.

Other critics suggest that interest group dynamics often reveal a lack of concern with overallpublic interest as each organization pursues its own narrow goals. They also point out that eventhe views of an interest group tend to represent the values of the leaders, not the rank and filemembers.

Some claim that pluralism is, in a sense, amoral because it is indifferent to the content of groupgoals. When government becomes ensnared in interest group squabbles, it cannot pursuemore distant goals. Some say that this is exemplified in the budget crisis, as government isunable to impose losses on various groups, thus the long-term goal of bringing the nationaldeficit under control is not addressed. Others point to Social Security, one of the most populargovernment programs treasured by an overwhelming number of Americans. To ensure itslong-term financial stability many analysts believe some adjustments to the program areneeded, yet government has been unable to address the need due to interest group resistanceor conflict over possible remedies.

Finally, many believe that by focusing on group dynamics, pluralism unfairly rejects the role ofthe individual apart from the group. Some charismatic leaders, such as the late Dr. MartinLuther King, for example, are individually instrumental in influencing policy, beyond the impactof the groups that formed around their ideas or inspiration.

8. Conclusions

Although there are competing opinions about the role and value of interest groups in U.S.politics, their influence on policy making is unquestioned. Thus, interest groups offer enormouspotential for people who wish to become civically engaged. The abundance of groups forvirtually every cause means that like-minded individuals can work together to promote theirviews to government. Today, digital technology and the Internet provide organizational toolsand access to information, making it much easier for groups to participate in politics. Thewidespread use of these increasingly low-cost technological tools may provide the opportunityfor political engagement for many in the working class who have been historically marginalparticipants in interest group dynamics. This will enable pluralism to embrace a broader swathof Americans.

And, finally, one could argue that pluralism is a philosophical commitment to diversity, a beliefthat there is some intrinsic good in difference. Implicit in this philosophy is respect fordifference, which translates to civility.

The Philosophy Talk program has several broadcasts which address contemporaryproblems within our pluralistic democracy. One of these is “Democracy in Crisis.” Be certain topurchase this for $1.99 via iTunes by clicking here. The discussion acknowledges thatdemocracy has been globally expanding, but is faced with major challenges in the United States.As discussed in the episode, what three problems are confronting the health of our democracy?Which of these are attributable to interest groups?

Easy, alternative download option:● Download the iTunes app● Visit the iTunes app Store and ensure the “Music” option is selected (not “podcasts”)● Enter “Philosophy Talk: Democracy in Crisis” in the search space located in the upper

right corner● Purchase “369: Democracy in Crisis” (listed under “Albums or Songs”). Do not select

Podcast Episodes nor Philosophy Talk Starters as these do not contain the sameinformation.

● Enjoy!

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