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MODULE

Seminar in Urban Problems

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University of MemphisDepartment of Public &

Nonprofit Administration

Euchner & McGovern (2003)Chapter 5 – Education & the

Ladder of Mobility

5

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Education & the Ladder of Mobility

 Common consensus that the public education system in the U.S. is in disrepair – lacks equity in education across schools and poor student achievement outcomes when compared to other countries

 Increased gap between urban and suburban schools during 20th century in achievement level, graduation rates, and per-student spending/funding

 Reform efforts have focused primarily on equity (1950s-1970s) and excellence (1980s-2000s)

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Education & the Ladder of Mobility

What’s the practical relevance?

“Children who attend underperforming urban schools are at a decided disadvantage in

competing for positions in a postindustrial, knowledge-based economy. Absent adequate credentials, individuals are relegated to low-

wage, low-skill jobs with disheartening prospects for upward mobility. ” (p. 188)

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Education & the Ladder of Mobility

What’s the practical relevance?

“[Schools] are also failing to prepare citizens to participate fully in civic life…A core function of

public education is to provide students with the tools to participate in public affairs and

contribute actively to the resolution of issues that affect the larger community, rather than just passively following the preferences of elites who

may or may not be motivated by the best interests of the community ” (p. 188)

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Education & the Ladder of Mobility

 The Council of Great City Schools 76 of the largest urban

public-school systems in the U.S.

 2019-2020 Annual Report

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Origins & Development of Public Education

 No public schooling (taxpayer-funded) during colonial era

 Jacksonian era brought first period of public education reform

 “Common school” ideal – for all children and to be a mix of all children regardless of race, class, or ethnicity to learn same knowledge and to learn from one another Never included African-Americans to a significant

degree Large White, Protestant cultural bias in curriculum  Stopped at elementary level

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Origins & Development of Public Education

 Industrial Revolution further divided the rich and the poor, and education was no different – rich White families moved their children away from diverse schools

 Progressive reform movement Overhaul the education system via abolishing

neighborhood district system that believed was rife with corruption

 Established a bureaucratic model of education delivery, neutral from political influence (ideally)

 Established centralized district system overseen by school board and superintendent and operated by various career civil service employees in various departments

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Origins & Development of Public Education

 Drawbacks to Progressive reform movement Increased emphasis on “instruction” rather than

“education” Did not completely isolate political influence Not all districts had equal level of resources –

urban schools skyrocketed in students without needed level of support

 Not all students received equal level of instruction, education, and support

 Large, bureaucratic model of schools continued; belief was to capitalize on economy of scale

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Origins & Development of Public Education

 Three prominent themes of education reform in post WWII era: Eliminate racial segregation in public schools Provide compensatory assistance to

disadvantaged students Overhaul financing of public schools

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Promoting Equity: School Desegregation

 Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) – afforded of “separate but equal” (segregation) application to schools

 Brown v. Board of Education (1954) – Black children denied equal protection of the laws in segregated schools

 Initial resistance to Brown, particularly large and persistent resistance in the South

 Multiple other Supreme Court decisions and federal intervention were required between Brown and the 1970s to increase desegregation “White flight” to private schools increased during this

time, particularly in cities Increased racial imbalance and between urban and

suburban schools

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Promoting Equity: School Desegregation

 “Ironically, the South became the most desegregated region in the U.S. by the 1970s” (p. 198) due to government policy interventions encouraging desegregation (e.g., busing, magnet schools)

 However, voluntary segregation doesn’t often lead to drawing White students to predominantly Black urban public schools

 “Students of color in racially isolated schools are inevitably subjected to gross inequalities in resources and facilities.” (p. 201)

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Promoting Equity: Federal Compensatory Programs

 During desegregation efforts, Johnson’s Great Society also led to other reforms related to education equality Title IX of the Educational Amendment Act of

1972 – prevented sex discrimination Equal Educational Opportunity Act of 1974 –

reduce language barriers Education of All Handicapped Children Act of

1975 (amended in 1977 as Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, “IDEA”) – provide needed support for all children

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Promoting Equity: Federal Compensatory Programs

 Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Act of 1965 (ESEA)  Targeted federal funds to disadvantaged students to

reduce achievement gap between rich and poor children

 Reauthorized in 2001 as No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act – brought attention to continued achievement gap, but had significant flaws

 Reauthorized in 2015 as Every Student Succeeds Act(ESSA) – attempted to address NCLB deficiencies

 NCLB vs. ESSA Head Start – well known program; mixed

results, particularly long-term

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Promoting Equity: School Finance Reforms

 Great debate – should property taxes be the primary source of financial support for public schools?

 Inequity in funding – poor communities need to have higher property taxes than wealthy communities to obtain equitable education funding levels

 Parents tend to lean towards districts that have the financial means to better support their children as students

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Promoting Equity: School Finance Reforms

 Great debate – should property taxes be the primary source of financial support for public schools?

 Inequity in funding – poor communities need to have higher property taxes than wealthy communities to obtain equitable education funding levels

 Parents tend to lean towards districts that have the financial means to better support their children as students

 School finance reform at the federal level is unlikely due to San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez (1973)

 State-level reform is possible (Serrano v. Priest in CA)

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Conservative Critique of Liberal Reforms

 Conservative scholars and policy-makers increased attention to education policy in the 1980s Reagan era

 Focus was on American students' steady decline in level of academic achievement

 1983 National Commission on Excellence in Education released A Nation at Risk –received widespread public attention to failings of American education system, and still resonates to this day

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The Excellence Movement

 A Nation at Risk suggested academic rigor was “left behind” during equality reforms and multi-level educational bureaucracy was largely to blame

 Excellence Movement emerged to focus on academic performance of students and teachers

 Standardized tests with consequences Teaching to the test Pushback from teachers’ unions

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The Excellence Movement

 What’s the best way to train a teacher? State governments requiring teaching certificates vs.

district-led hiring States increase accountability on school districts,

can lead to state-run takeovers of the district Summary of movement – “… the excellence

movement succeeded in stimulating virtually every state to raise academic standards and hold students accountable…. But for many students in middle school and high school, especially those in central cities, there has been little improvement in academic achievement.” (p. 215)

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Critique of Government Control over Schooling

 Attack on education system bureaucracy (i.e., government control) aligns with the 1980/90s New Public Management (NPM) movement throughout public administration

 How did the bureaucracy get so big? Increase in students = increase in administrators Demands of various stakeholder groups  Power of teachers’ unions Nationwide curriculums and standardized testing

 “The superintendent serves more as a manager of separate operations than a vigorous leader who provides vision for teaching and learning.” (p. 219)

 Suggested solution – parents need choice in the schooling of their children

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School Choice: Vouchers

 School vouchers 101 – families receive a political determined sum of money to send child to school (public or private) of their choice Increased use of such policy tool

 Attack on government monopoly of public education by promoting competition between schools – creates a “free market” for education

 Critique – The Danger Private School Voucher Programs Pose to Civil Rights

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School Choice: Charter Schools

 Charter schools are public-private hybrid An entity enters a contract (i.e., a charter) with a

government to establish a school and meet certain criteria

 Pubic – open to public, publicly funded, and accountable to taxpayers

 Private – not run by government  Not geography based Prevalence varies from state to state and has

increased in enrollment but is only around 6% of all public-school students

 Information asymmetry is a concern for both charter schools and school vouchers

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The Future of Urban Education Policy

 Equality of opportunity and academic excellence continue to be the focus of public education reforms

 Debate continues – continue large role of government in public education? Increase private sector role? Increase quasi-governmental control (such as charters)? Controlled choice?

 State examples: Connecticut – recent 2020 agreement in Sheff v.

O’Neill that increased public funds for magnet schools

 Kentucky – 30 year look at Kentucky Education Reform Act of 1990